阅读篇章

在大学英语四级阅读里，最常见的是议论文。议论文常用的是总分、对照、问题解决等逻辑结构。熟悉这些逻辑结构有助于了解篇章内在的规律性，有助于培养和提高学生的理解能力，有助于实现有效阅读。下面分别讲解总分式结构、对照式结构、问题解决式结构、因果式结构、举例式结构。

3.1 总分式结构

总分式结构是指文章层次之间是总说和分说的关系。一般有三种基本形式：(1)先总后分 (General-Specific, G-S)；(2)先分后总 (Sepcific-General, S-G)；(3)总分总 (General-Specific-General, G-S-G)。先总后分是考生最熟悉也是最常见的逻辑结构。如图所示：

按照先总后分组织的段落或文章一般是先提出具有一般意义的论点或陈述，然后再提供具体详细的阐述，以支持论点。常见的标志词有：generally speaking, in general, generally, as a rule, on the whole, firstly, secondly, thirdly等。分别以段落和文章为例进行说明。

1) 总分式段落

例：(总述) On the whole, wherever one lives, in the city or the country, there are some good reasons for owing a car. (分述1) Firstly, cars provide the most convenient form of transportation. (分述2) Secondly, a car is a comfortable way to travel, especially in winter time.

2) 总分式文章

Just five one-hundredths of an inch thick, light golden in color and with a perfect “saddle curl”, the Lay’s potato chip seems an unlikely weapon for global domination. But its maker, Frito-Lay, thinks otherwise. “Potato chips are a snack food for the world,” said Salman Amin, the company’s head of global marketing. Amin believes there is no corner of the world that can resist the charms of a Frito-Lay potato chip.

Frito-Lay is the biggest snack maker in America, owned by PepsiCo and accounts for over half of the parent company’s $3 billion annual profits. But the U.S. snack food market is largely saturated, and to grow, the company has to look overseas.

Its strategy rests on two beliefs ：First, a global product offers economies of scale with which local brands cannot compete. And second, consumers in the 21st century are drawn to “global” as a concept. “Global” does not mean products that are consciously identified as American, but ones that consumers—especially young people—see as part of a modern, innovative world in which people are linked across cultures by shared beliefs and tastes. Potato chips are an American invention, but most Chinese, for instance, do not know that Frito-Lay is an American company. Instead, Riskey, the company’s research and development head, would hope they associate the brand with the new world of global communications and business.

With brand perception a crucial factor, Riskey ordered a redesign of the Frito-Lay logo .The

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logo, along with the company’s long-held marketing image of the “irresistibility” of its chips would help facilitate the company’s global expansion.

The executives acknowledge that they try to swing national eating habits to a food created in America, but they deny that amounts to economic imperialism. Rather, they see Frito-Lay as spreading the benefits of free enterprise across the world. “We’re making products in those countries, we’re adapting them to the tastes of those countries, building businesses and employing people and changing lives,” said Steve Reinemund, PepsiCo’s chief executive. 1. It is the belief of Frito-Lay’s head of global marketing that __________.

A) potato chips can hardly be used as a weapon to dominate the world market B) their company must find new ways to promote domestic sales

C) the light golden color enhances the charm of their company’s potato chips D) people the world over enjoy eating their company’s potato chips 2. What do we learn about Frito-Lay from Paragraph 2?

A) Its products used to be popular among overseas consumers. B) Its expansion has caused fierce competition in the snack market. C) It gives half of its annual profits to its parent company. D) It needs to turn to the world market for development.

3. One of the assumptions on which Frito-Lay bases its development strategy is that _______. A) consumers worldwide today are attracted by global brands

B) local brands cannot compete successfully with American brands C) products suiting Chinese consumers’ needs bring more profits D) products identified as American will have promising market value 4. Why did Riskey have the Frito- Lay logo redesigned? A) To suit changing tastes of young consumers.

B) To promote the company’s strategy of globalization. C) To change the company’s long-held marketing image. D) To compete with other American chip producers.

5. Frito-Lay’s executives claim that the promoting of American food in the international market ___________.

A) won’t affect the eating habits of the local people B) will lead to economic imperialism

C) will be in the interest of the local people D) won’t spoil the taste of their chips

3.2 对照式结构

对照是日常生活中经常使用的一种思维方法。使用此结构的文章层次分明，条理清楚。常用的结构有两种：分点比较和分项比较。

所谓分点比较就是在比较两个对象时，以共同的对比点为参照，同时对两个对象进行比较。如图所示：

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引入 对比点1 对比点2 对比项1 对比项2 对比点3 对比项1 对比项2 对比项1 对比项2

所谓分项比较就是对两个对象进行分别阐述，从而找出它们的差异。如图所示：

常用的标志词有：in comparison with, similarly, likewise, like, on the contrary, in contrast, on one hand… on the other hand, unlike 等。分别以段落和文章为例进行说明。

1) 对照式段落

例：(对比点) When I went to senior middle school, I was eager to continue studying English; however, my experience in senior middle school was very different from before. (对比项1) While my former teacher had been patient with all of the students, (对比项2) my new teacher quickly punished those who gave incorrect answers.

2) 对照式文章

Educating girls quite possibly yields a higher rate of return than any other investment available in the developing world.

Women’s education may be unusual territory for economists, but enhancing women’s contribution to development is actually as much an economic as a social issue. And economics, with its emphasis on incentives, provides guideposts that point to an explanation for why so many girls are deprived of an education.

Parents in low-income countries fail to invest in their daughters because they do not expect them to make an economic contribution to the family: girls grow up only to marry into somebody else’s family and bear children. Girls are thus seen as less valuable than boys and are kept at home to do housework while their brothers are sent to school—the prophecy becomes self-fulfilling, trapping women in a vicious circle of neglect.

An educated mother, on the other hand，has greater earning abilities outside the home and faces an entirely different set of choices. She is likely to have fewer but healthier children and can insist on the development of all her children, ensuring that her daughters are given a fair chance. The education of her daughters then makes it much more likely that the next generation of girls, as

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well as of boys, will be educated and healthy. The vicious circle is thus transformed into a virtuous circle .

Few will dispute that educating women has great social benefits. But it has enormous economic advantages as well. Most obviously, there is the direct effect of education on the wages of female workers. Wages rise by 10 to 20 per cent for each additional year of schooling. Such big returns are impressive by the standard of other available investments, but they are just the beginning. Educating women also has a significant impact on health practices, including family planning.

1. The author argues that educating girls in developing countries is ________. A) troublesome B) labor-saving C) rewarding D) expensive

2. By saying “the prophecy becomes self- fulfilling…” (Para. 3) the author means that _________. A) girls will turn out to be less valuable than boys prophecy B) girls will be capable of realizing their own dreams

C) girls will eventually find their goals in life beyond reach D) girls will be increasingly discontented with their life at home

3. The author believes that a vicious circle can turn into a virtuous circle when _______. A) women care more about education B) girls can gain equal access to education C) a family has fewer but healthier children D) parents can afford their daughters’ education 4. What does the author say about women’s education? A) It deserves greater attention than other social issues.

B) It is now given top priority in many developing countries. C) It will yield greater returns than other known investments. D) It has aroused the interest of a growing number of economists. 5. The passage mainly discusses _______.

A) unequal treatment of boys and girls in developing countries B) the potential earning power of well-educated women C) the major contributions of educated women to society D) the economic and social benefits of educating women

3.3 问题解决式结构

问题解决 (Problem-Solution, P-S) 结构是议论文中很常见的篇章结构。其基本结构是，说明情况，提出问提，解决问题，给予评价，或提出问题，分析问题，解决问题，给予评价。如图所示：

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1) 问题解决式段落

(说明情况) Brazil is the home of the world’s largest jungle rain forest, the Amazon. (提出问题) For decades, the government sought to colonize and develop the Amazon, bringing severe environmental disaster to the area and its people.

(解决问题) But in 1991, under pressure from environmentalists around the world, Brazil reversed course. It ended tax favors that had encouraged clearing of the Amazon rain forest, and agreed to a plan to finance new forest protection projects.

Cattle farmers, miners, and settlers have protested the move and continue to destroy the forests, although at a slower pace than before. The conflict enlarged last year when miners killed a group of Amazon Indians in order to seize their land. (评价解决办法) The government promises it will protect the region’s native people, but questions remain as to its true level of commitment.

What measures did Brazil take to protect its jungle rain forest? _____________.

答案在Solution部分，即It ended tax favors that had encouraged clearing of the Amazon rain forest, and agreed to a plan to finance new forest protection projects.

2) 问题解决式文章

Justice is only partially done when a criminal is given due punishment but the victim, who has been reduced to a desperate state by the harm the criminal has done, is not properly compensated.

In this type of case, a court verdict can explicitly dictate that the sentenced criminal be required to pay his or her victim a certain amount of money in compensation for the economic losses the criminal has inflicted on the victim. Yet, when the criminal has no money or property for compensation, even if the victim has been seriously injured or reduced to a state of misery, the victim receives no compensation.

A system to aid such victims will, hopefully, fill in this blank in the country’s judicial system. This task has been placed on the agenda of the Supreme People’s Court at a meeting on Sunday. In fact, some local courts have already taken action in establishing an aid system. The Intermediate People’s Court in the city of Fuzhou, Fujian Province, stipulated in October that a victim of a criminal offense, if reduced to a desperate condition because of economic losses inflicted by an offender unable to compensate the victim, may apply to the court for financial aid.

Several decades ago when the political ideology of class struggle was dominant, the judicial system was considered a tool of proletarian dictatorship. In the process of building the rule of law over more than two decades, more emphasis has been placed on upholding justice by meting out appropriate penalties through proper legal procedures. But as President Xiao Yang of the Supreme People’s Court points out, a court tends to become an arena for contesting lawsuit techniques without extending systematic protection to the disadvantaged and impoverished victims.

The concern the judicial system shows for criminal case victims by providing them with financial aid epitomizes the progress the country is making in building the rule of law. 1. According to Paragraph 1, justice is not fully done because ________. A) the punishment given to the criminal is not proper B) the compensation given to the victim is not proper C) the concept of justice is misleading D) criminals are poorer than victims

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2. The victim receives no compensation when _________. A) he is not seriously injured

B) he has the ability to cover all the expenses C) a court verdict dictates it definitely

D) the criminal is unable to afford any compensation 3. According to the passage, the aid system __________. A) has been in existence for a long time

B) has been approved by the Supreme People’s Court C) has been put into reality in some local courts

D) can not be effected unless the victims apply to the court for it 4. According to the President Xiao Yang, a court is a place _________. A) where the criminals get their penalties B) where justice is valued highly C) where the victims get protection D) where the lawyers show their skills

5. The financial aid system for the victims implies that __________. A) victims don’t need to worry about compensation any more B) justice will be fully realized in the court

C) people are making progress on the improvement of the law D) the rule of law will be perfect

3.4 因果式结构

因果式是一种比较常见的思维方法。在很多情况下，需要分析某个现象产生的原因或某一决策可能导致的结果。因果式通常在主题句中陈述结果，在论证中分析原因。如图所示：

结果 原因1 原因2 原因3 常用的信号词有：therefore, consequently, as a result, result in, as a result of, result from, since, as等。分别以段落和文章为例进行说明。

1) 因果式段落

例：(结果) Nowadays there is often a misunderstanding between parent and child. (原因1) The most obvious reason for this lack of communication is that they grew up at different times and therefore have different likes and dislikes for the things around them. (原因2) Also the parent is often too busy to listen patiently to the explanation of the child when there is a misunderstanding.

2) 因果式文章

Americans are proud of their variety and individuality, yet they love and respect few things more than a uniform, whether it is the uniform of an elevator operator or the uniform of a five-star

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general. Why are uniforms so popular in the United States?

Among the arguments for uniforms, one of the first is that in the eyes of most people they look more professional than civilian clothes. People have become conditioned to expect superior quality from a man who wears a uniform. The television repairman who wears uniform tends to inspire more trust than one who appears in civilian clothes. Faith in the skill of a garage mechanic is increased by a uniform. What easier way is there for a nurse, a policeman, a barber, or a waiter (举例3) to lose professional identity than to step out of uniform?

Uniforms also have many practical benefits. They save on other clothes. They save on laundry bills. They are tax-deductible. They are often more comfortable and more durable than civilian clothes.

Primary among the arguments against uniforms is their lack of variety and the consequent loss of individuality experienced by people who must wear them. Though there are many types of uniforms, the wearer of any particular type is generally stuck with it, without change, until retirement. When people look alike, they tend to think, speak, and act similarly, on the job at least.

Uniforms also give rise to some practical problems. Though they are long-lasting, often their initial expense is greater than the cost of civilian clothes. Some uniforms are also expensive to maintain, requiring professional dry cleaning rather than the home laundering possible with many types of civilian clothes.

1. It is surprising that Americans who worship variety and individuality ________. A) still judge a man by his clothes

B) hold the uniform in such high regard C) enjoy having a professional identity

D) will respect an elevator operator as much as a general in uniform 2. People are accustomed to think that a man in uniform _______. A) suggests quality work B) discards his social identity C) appears to be more practical

D) looks superior to a person in civilian clothes 3. The chief function of a uniform is to _________. A) provide practical benefits to the wearer B) make the wearer catch the public eye C) inspire the wearer’s confidence in himself D) provide the wearer with a professional identity

4. According to the passage, people wearing uniforms _________. A) are usually helpful

B) have little or no individual freedom C) tend to lose their individuality D) enjoy greater popularity

5. The best title for this passage would be ________. A) Uniforms and Society

B) The Importance of Wearing a Uniform C) Practical Benefits of Wearing a Uniform D) Advantages and Disadvantages of Unifoms

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3.5 举例式结构

举例是用于支撑观点的最常见的方法之一。它通常包括陈述事实、列举数据和引用。

论点 事实1 事实1 论点 引用 这种方法处处可见，常见的标志词包括：for example, for instance, in particular, a case in point, in most cases 等。分别以段落和文章为例进行说明。

1) 举例式段落

例：(论点) Pollution is becoming more and more seriously all over the world. For example, (事实1) the poisonous gas sent off by factories and automobiles has made the air unhealthy for people to breathe. (事实2) For another example, waste water keeps pouring into rivers and lakes; as a result, many water lives are dying out. (事实3) Furthermore, everywhere we go today, we can find rubbish carelessly disposed. Pollution is, in fact, threatening our existence.

2) 举例式文章

Psychiatrists who work with older parents say that maturity can be an asset in child rearing- older parents are more thoughtful, use less physical discipline and spend more time with their children. But raising kids takes money and energy. Many older parents find themselves balancing their limited financial resources, declining energy and failing health against the growing demands of an active child. Dying and leaving young children is probably the older parents’ biggest, and often unspoken, fear. Having late-life children, says an economics professor, often means parents, particularly fathers, “end up retiring much later.” For many, retirement becomes an unobtainable dream.

Henry Metcalf, a 54-year-old journalist, knows it takes money to raise kids. But he’s also worried that his energy will give out first. Sure, he can still ride bikes with his athletic fifth grader, but he’s learned that young at heart doesn’t mean young. Lately he’s been taking afternoon naps to keep up his energy. “My body is aging,” says Metcalf. “You can’t get away from that.”

Often, older parents hear the ticking of another kind of biological clock. Therapists who work with middle-aged and older parents say fears about aging are nothing to laugh at. “They worry they’ll be mistaken for grandparents, or that they’ll need help getting up out of those little chairs in nursery school,” says Joann Galst, a New York psychologist. But at the core of those little fears there is often a much bigger one: “that they won’t be alive long enough to support and protect their child,” she says.

Many late-life parents, though, say their children came at just the right time. After marrying late and undergoing years of fertility treatment, Marilyn Nolen and her husband, Randy, had twins. “We both wanted children,” says Marilyn, who was 55 when she gave birth. The twins have given

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the couple what they desired for years, “a sense of family”.

Kids of older dads are often smarter, happier and more sociable because their fathers are more involved in their lives. “ The dads are older, more mature,” says Dr.Silber, “ and more ready to focus on parenting.”

1. Why do psychiatrists regard maturity as an asset in child rearing? A) Older parents are often better prepared financially. B) Older parents can take better care of their children.

C) Older parents are usually more experienced in bringing up their children. D)Older parents can better balance their resources against children’s demands.

2. What does the author mean by saying “For many, retirement becomes an unobtainable dream” (Lines 8, Para.1)?

A) They are reluctant to retire when they reach their retirement age. B) They can’t obtain the retirement benefits they have dreamed of. C) They can’t get full pension unless they work some extra years. D) They have to go on working beyond their retirement age.

3. The author gives the example of Henry Metcalf to show that ________. A) older parents should exercise more to keep up with their athletic children B) many people are young in spirit despite their advanced age C) older parents tend to be concerned about their aging bodies D) taking afternoon naps is a good way to maintain energy

4. What’s the biggest fear of older parents according to New York psychologist Joan Galst? A) Approaching of death. B). Slowing down of their pace of life. C) Being laughed at by other people. D) Being mistaken for grandparents. 5. What do we learn about Marilyn and Randy Nolen?

A) They thought they were an example of successful fertility treatment. B) Not until they reached middle age did they think of having children. C) Not until they had the twins did they feel they had formed a family. D) They believed that children born of older parents would be smarter.

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