语言学

Exercise8

I. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:

• 1. Pragmatics___ is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.

• 2. What essentially distinguishes semantics____ and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.

• 3. The notion of context____ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.

• 4. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an utterance_____.

5. The meaning of a sentence is abstract, and decontextualized.

6. Constatives（表述句） were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable.

7. Performatives（施为句） were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.

8. A locutionary（发话的） act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.

9. An illocutionary（行事的）act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.

• 10. A commissive____ is to commit the speaker himself to some future course of action.

• 11. An expressive____ is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state.

• 12. There are four maxims under the Cooperative Principle: the maxim of

quantity____, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of

manner.

13. In making conversation, the general principle that all participants are expected to observe is called the _ Cooperative Principle proposed by Grice.

14. While the meaning of a sentence is abstract and decontextualized, that of an _ utterance is concrete and context-dependent. 15. A __ perlocutionary（取效的）act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something.

16. _ Directives（指示句）are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something.

17. All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose or

the same __ illocutionary point, but they differ in their strength or force.

18. The idea of Paul Grice is that in making conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to _ cooperate;; otherwise it would be impossible for them to go on with the talk. The general principle is called the __ Cooperative Principle ___.

19. The maxim of relation requires that what the conversation participants say must be __ relevant

III. Choose the best answer.

• 20. _C____ found that natural language had its own logic and conclude the Cooperative Principle.

A. John Austin B. John Firth C. Paul Grice D. William James

• 21. The branch of linguistics that studies how context influences the way speakers interpret sentences is called __B___.

A. semantics B. pragmatics C. sociolinguistics D. psycholinguistics

• 22. _B____ proposed that speech acts can be analyzed on three levels.

A. Austin B. SearleC. Sapir D. Chomsky

• 23. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical of the _C____.

A. declarations B. directivesC. commissives D. expressives

• 24. The illocutionary point（言外之意） of the ___B__ is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance.

A. declarations B. expressives C. commissives D. directives

• 25. Y's utterance in the following conversation exchange violates the maxim of

____C_.

- X: Who was that you were with last night?

- Y: Did you know that you were wearing odd socks?

A. quality B. Quantity C. relation D. manner

• 26. The violation of one or more of the conversational _D____ (of the CP) can, when the listener folly understands the speaker, create conversational implicature, and humor sometimes.

A. standards B. Principles C. levels D. maxims

• 27. Most of the violations of the maxims of the CP give rise to __D___.

A. breakdown of conversation B. confusion of one's intention

C. hostility between speakers and the listeners D. conversational implicatures

• 28. Speech Act Theory was proposed by __B___.

A. Saussure B. Austin C. Chomsky D. Grimm

• 29. The maxim of quantity requires: __D___.

A. contribute as informative as required B. do not contribute more than is required

C. do not say what has little evidence D. both A and B

• 30. According to Searle, those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action are called __A___.

A. commissives B. directivesC. expressives D. declaratives

• 31. __A___ does not study meaning in isolation, but in context.

A. Pragmatics B. Semantics C. Sense relation D. Concept

• 32. The meaning of language was considered as something __C___ in traditional semantics.

A. contextual B. behaviouristic C. intrinsic D. logical

• 33. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning D_____ is considered. A. reference B. speech act C. practical usage D. context

• 34. A sentence is a __B___ concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied in isolation.

A. pragmatic B. grammatical C. mental D. conceptual

• 35. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes a(n) _C____.

A. constative B. directive C. utterance D. expressive

• 36. Which of the following is true? B

A. Utterances usually do not take the form of sentences.

B. Some utterances cannot be restored to complete sentences.

C. No utterances can take the form of sentences.

D. All utterances can be restored to complete sentences.

• 37. Speech act theory did not come into being until ____A_.

A. in the late 50’s of the 20th century B. in the middle of 60’s of the 20th century

C. in the late 1960’s of the 20th century D. in the early 21st century.

• 38. __C___ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.

A. A locutionary act B. An illocutionary act C. A perlocutionary act D. A performative act

• 39. All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose, but they differ _C____.

A. in their illocutionary acts B. in their intentions expressed

C. in their strength or force D. in their effect brought about

• 40. __B___ is advanced by Geoffrey Leech.

A. Cooperative Principle B. Politeness Principle

C. The General Principle of Universal Grammar D. Adjacency Principle

• 41. When any of the maxims under the cooperative principle is flouted, __D___ might arise.

A. impoliteness B. contradictions C. mutual understanding D. conversational implicatures

IV. Decide whether the following statements are true [T] or false [F].

• 42. Both semantics and pragmatics study how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. F

• 43. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent. F

• 44. It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered. T

• 45. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. T

• 46. The major difference between a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence is not uttered while an utterance is. F

• 47. The meaning of a sentence is abstract, but context-dependent. F

• 48. The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable. F

• 49. Utterances always take the form of complete sentences. F

• 50. Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle. F

• 51. Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century. T

• 52. Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative. T

• 53. Perlocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention. F

• _T_ 54. If the context of use is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.

• F__ 55. A locutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention.

F: (An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention.)

• 56. When performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true. T

• T 57. The utterance meaning of the sentence varies with the context in which it is uttered.

• _T_ 58. While conversation participants nearly always observe the CP, they do not always observe its maxims strictly.

• F__59. Inviting, suggesting, warning, ordering are instances of commissives.

F: (Inviting, suggesting, warning, ordering are instances of directives.)

• T__ 60. Only when a maxim under Cooperative Principle is blatantly（公然地）violated and the hearer knows that it is being violated do conversational implicatures arise.

• _T_ 61. Of the three speech acts, linguists are most interested in the illocutionary act because this kind of speech is identical with the speaker's intention.

• __ 62. Stylistics covers the study of language use in relation to context, and in particular the study of linguistic communication.

F: (Pragmatics covers the study of language use in relation to context, and in particular the study of linguistic communication.)

• 63. As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be considered as a kind of

meaning study. T

• T__64. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication or simply in a context.

V. Define the terms below:

• 65. pragmatics 66. context

• 67. utterance meaning

• 68. sentence meaning

• 69. constative 70. performative

• 71. locutionary act 72. illocutionary act

• 73. perlocutionary act

• 74. Cooperative Principle

• VI. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:

• 75. How are semantics and pragmatics different from each other?

• 76. How does a sentence differ from an utterance?

• 77. How does a sentence meaning differ from an utterance meaning?

• VI. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:

• 78. Discuss in detail the locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.

• 79. What are the four maxims under the Cooperative Principle?

• 80. How does the flouting of the maxims give rise to conversational implicatures? (This one will be our assignment for today.)

Exercise11

I. Fill in the blanks.

 1. In learning a second language, a learner will subconsciously use his first language knowledge. This process is called language _ transfer（迁移）

 2. Such errors as \"teached\" and \"womans\" are caused by _

overgeneralization（过分概括）  3. The __ fossilization（化石化） of the learner's interlanguage is believed to

be a major source of incorrect forms resistant to further instruction.  fossilization（化石化）

 4. In second language learning, instrumental motivation occurs when the learner's goal is functional, and __ Integrative（综合的） motivation occurs when the learner's goal is social.

 Integrative（综合的）

 5. _ Contrastive analysis hypothesis holds that where two languages are similar, positive transfer would occur; where they are different, negative transfer, or interference, would result.

 Contrastive analysis hypothesis

 6. __ Interlanguage theory holds the first language can be viewed as a kind of \"input from the insidehus transfer is not \"interference\" but a cognitive process.

 Interlanguage theory

 7. _ Perceived transferability（感知迁移性）means how likely learners think a form of the first language to be acceptable in another language.

 Perceived transferability（感知迁移性）

 8. _ Input flooding is a type of form-focused instruction that involves supplying learners with plentiful positive evidence of a specific linguistic feature.

 Input flooding

 9. _ Production-based instruction aims to teach a specific linguistic feature by eliciting sentences containing it from the learner.

II. Choose the best answer.

 10. Negative transfer in learning a second language is known as ___A__.

A. Interference B. interlanguage C. Fossilization D. acculturation

 11. Beside the genetic predisposition（遗传素质）for language acquisition, language ____D_ is necessary for successful language acquisition.

A. instruction B. correction C. imitation D. input and interaction

 12. _C____ is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.

A. Competence B. Performance C. Learning D. Acquisition

 13. __D___ are devised to reveal what a learner knows: the rules he is using and the systems and categories he is working with.

A. experiments B. quasi-experiments C. tests D. tasks

 14. _C_____ sees errors as the result of the intrusion of the first language habits over which the learner had no control.

A. error analysis B. performance analysis C. contrastive analysis D. discourse analysis

III. Decide whether the following statements are true [T] or false [F].

 15. In language classrooms nowadays the grammar taught to students is basically descriptive, and more attention is paid to developing learners' communicative skills. T

 16. If language learners are provided with sufficient and the right kind of language exposure and chances to interact with language input, they will acquire the native-like competence in the target language.

F (Positive evidence alone is not enough for learners to acquire a language, negative evidence also helps.)

III. Decide whether the following statements are true [T] or false [F].

 17. Foreigner talk is always ungrammatical.

F (Foreigner talk can be both ungrammatical and grammatical.)

 18. Learners with different first languages would learn a second language in different ways.

F (L2 learners follow broadly similar routes, although minor differences exist due to variable learner factors and learning situations.)

Exercise12

❖ 1. The Prague School practiced a special style of __synchronic___ Linguistics.

❖ 2. The Prague School is best known and remembered for its contribution to phonology and the distinction between _phonetics____ and phonology. ❖ 3. The man who turned linguistics proper into a recognized distinct academic subject in Britain was _J.R.Firth___. ❖ 4. Halliday's Systemic Grammar contains a functional component, and the theory behind his Functional Grammar is systemic_____. ❖ 5. Systemic-Functional Grammar is a (n) ___sociologically__ oriented functional linguistic approach.

❖ 6. Structuralism is based on the assumption that grammatical categories should be defined not in terms of meaning but in terms of _distribution____.

❖ 7. In the history of American linguistics, the period between 1933 and 1950

is also known as the __Bloomfieldian___ Era.

❖ 8. __Descriptivism___ in language theories is characteristic of America.

❖ 9. The starting point of Chomsky's TG Grammar is his _innateness____ hypothesis.

❖ 10. Systemic-Functional Grammar takes the actual uses of language as the object of study, while Chomsky's TG Grammar takes the ideal speaker's linguistic competence_____ as the object of study. ❖ 11. The person who is often described as \"father of modern linguistics\" is ___B__.

A. Firth B. Saussure C. Halliday D. Chomsky

❖ 12. The most important contribution of the Prague School to linguistics is that it sees language in terms of _A____.

❖ A. function B. meaning C. signs D. system

❖ 13. The principal representative of American descriptive linguistics is ___C__.

A. Boas B. Sapir C. Bloomfield D. Harris

❖ 14. The theory of ____D_ considers that all sentences are generated from a

semantic structure.

A. Case Grammar B. Stratificational Grammar

C. Relational Grammar D. Generative Semantics

❖ 15. Generally speaking, the __A___ specifies whether a certain tagmeme is in the position of the Nucleus or of the Margin in the structure.

A. Slot B. Class C. Role D. Cohesion

❖ 16. ___A__ Grammar is the most widespread and the best understood method of discussing Indo-European languages.

A. Traditional B. Structural C. Functional D. Generative

17. In Halliday’s view, the __B___ function is the function that the child uses to know about his surroundings.

A. personal B. heuristic（启发式的）C. Imaginative D. informative

❖ 18. The rheme in the sentence \"On it stood Jane\" is __D___.

A. On it B. stood C. On it stood D. Jane

❖ 19. Chomsky follows __C___ in philosophy and mentalism in psychology.

A. empiricism B. behaviorism C. rationalism（理性主义） D. mentalism（唯心主义）

❖ 20. TG Grammar has seen __C___ stages of development.

A. three B. four C. five D. six

III. Decide whether the following statements are true [T] or false [F].

❖ 21. Following Saussure's distinction between langue and parole, Trubetzkoy argued that phonetics belonged to langue whereas phonology belonged to parole.

[F] Phonetics belonged to parole whereas phonology belonged to langue.

❖ 22. The subject-predicate distinction is the same as the theme and rheme contrast.

[F] Not always the same

❖ 23. London School is also known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics. T

❖ 24. According to Firth, a system is a set of mutually exclusive options that come into play at some point in a linguistic structure. T

❖ 25. American Structuralism is a branch of diachronic linguistics that emerged independently in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century.

[F] American Structuralism is a branch of synchronic linguistics.

❖ 26. The Standard Theory focuses discussion on language universals and universal grammar.

[F] The Extended Standard Theory focuses discussion on language universals and universal grammar.

❖ 27. American descriptive linguistics is empiricist and focuses on diversities of languages.

[T]

❖ 28. Chomsky's concept of linguistic performance is similar to Saussure's concept of parole, while his use of linguistic competence is somewhat different from Saussure's langue. T

❖ 29. If two sentences have exactly the same ideational and interpersonal functions, they would be the same in terms of textual coherence.

[F] Although two sentences may have exactly the same ideational and interpersonal functions, they may be different in terms of textual coherence.

❖ 30. Case Grammar is a type of linguistic theory within the TG theory and can be a revision of Chomsky's Standard Theory. T

❖ 31. The structuralists follow behaviorism in philosophy and empiricism in psychology.

[F] The structuralists follow empiricism in philosophy and behaviorism in psychology.