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Space Architecture
As part of the initial development programme of Tate in Space, three future thinking architectural practices were invited to develop proposals for the new Tate. We also launched an open submission Student Competition designed to stimulate ideas and thinking during this critical development period. The results of the Tate in Space Student Architecture Competition are now available, and the winning entries can be viewed on this site (see Student Competition, below), along with the three original invited proposals by Softroom, Sarah Wigglesworth Architects and ETALAB.
Modern architecture, not to be confused with 'contemporary architecture', is a term given to a number of building styles with similar characteristics, primarily the simplification of form and the elimination of ornament. While the style was conceived early in the 20th century and heavily promoted by a few architects, architectural educators and exhibits, very few Modern buildings were built in the first half of the century. For three decades after the Second World War, however, it became the dominant architectural style for institutional and corporate building.
1. Origins
Some historians see the evolution of Modern architecture as a social matter, closely tied to the project of Modernity and hence to the Enlightenment, a result of social and political revolutions.
Others see Modern architecture as primarily driven by technological and engineering developments, and it is true that the availability of new building materials such as iron, steel, concrete and glass drove the invention of new building techniques as part of the Industrial Revolution. In 1796, Shrewsbury mill owner Charles Bage first used his ‘fireproof’ design, which relied on cast iron and brick with flag stone floors. Such construction greatly strengthened the structure of mills, which enabled them to accommodate much bigger machines. Due to poor knowledge of iron's properties as a construction material, a number of early mills collapsed. It was not until the early 1830s that Eaton Hodgkinson introduced the section beam, leading to widespread use of iron construction, this kind of austere industrial architecture utterly transformed the landscape of northern Britain, leading to the description, "Dark satanic mills" of places like Manchester and parts of West Yorkshire. The Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton at the Great Exhibition of 1851 was an early example of iron and glass construction; possibly the best example is the development of the tall steel skyscraper in Chicago around 10 by William Le Baron Jenney and Louis Sullivan. Early structures to employ concrete as the chief means of architectural expression (rather than for purely utilitarian structure) include Frank Lloyd Wright's Unity Temple, built in 1906 near Chicago, and Rudolf Steiner's Second Goetheanum, built from 1926 near Basel, Switzerland.
Other historians regard Modernism as a matter of taste, a reaction against eclecticism and the lavish stylistic excesses of Victorian Era and Edwardian Art Nouveau.
Whatever the cause, around 1900 a number of architects around the world began developing new architectural solutions to integrate traditional precedents (Gothic, for instance) with new technological possibilities. The work of Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright in Chicago, Victor Horta in Brussels, Antoni Gaudi in Barcelona, Otto Wagner in Vienna and Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow, among many others, can be seen as a common struggle between old and new.
2. Modernism as Dominant Style
By the 1920s the most important figures in Modern architecture had established their reputations. The big three are commonly recognized as Le Corbusier in France, and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Walter Gropius in Germany. Mies van der Rohe and Gropius were both directors of the Bauhaus, one of a number of European schools and associations concerned with reconciling craft tradition and industrial technology.
Frank Lloyd Wright's career parallels and influences the work of the European modernists, particularly via the Wasmuth Portfolio, but he refused to be categorized with them. Wright was a major influence on both Gropius and van der Rohe, however, as well as on the whole of organic architecture.
In 1932 came the important MOMA exhibition, the International Exhibition of Modern Architecture, curated by Philip Johnson. Johnson and collaborator Henry-Russell Hitchcock drew together many distinct threads and trends, identified them as stylistically similar and having a common purpose, and consolidated them into the International Style.
This was an important turning point. With World War II the important figures of the Bauhaus fled to the United States, to Chicago, to the Harvard Graduate School of Design, and to Black Mountain College. While Modern architectural design never became a dominant style in single-dwelling residential buildings, in institutional and commercial architecture Modernism became the pre-eminent, and in the schools (for leaders of the profession) the only acceptable, design solution from about 1932 to about 1984.
Architects who worked in the international style wanted to break with architectural tradition and design simple, unornamented buildings. The most commonly used materials are glass for the facade, steel for exterior support, and concrete for the floors and interior supports; floor plans were functional and logical. The style became most evident in the design of skyscrapers. Perhaps its most famous manifestations include the United Nations headquarters (Le Corbusier, Oscar Niemeyer, Sir Howard Robertson), the Seagram Building (Ludwig Mies van der Rohe), and Lever House (Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill), all in New York. A prominent residential example is the Lovell House (Richard Neutra) in Los Angeles.
Detractors of the international style claim that its stark, uncompromisingly rectangular geometry is dehumanising. Le Corbusier once described buildings as "machines for living", but people are not machines and it was suggested that they do not want to live in machines. Even Philip Johnson admitted he was "bored with the box." Since the early 1980s many architects have deliberately sought to move away from rectilinear designs, towards more eclectic styles. During the middle of the century, some architects began experimenting in organic forms that they felt were more human and accessible. Mid-century modernism, or organic modernism, was very popular, due to its democratic and playful nature. Alvar Aalto and Eero Saarinen were two of the most prolific architects and designers in this movement, which has influenced contemporary modernism.
Although there is debate as to when and why the decline of the modern movement occurred, criticism of Modern architecture began in the 1960s on the grounds that it was universal, sterile, elitist and lacked meaning. Its approach had become ossified in a "style" that threatened to degenerate into a set of mannerisms. Siegfried Giedion in the 1961 introduction to his evolving text, Space, Time and Architecture (first written in 1941), could begin "At the moment a certain confusion exists in contemporary architecture, as in painting; a kind of pause, even a kind of exhaustion." At the Metropolitan Museum of Art, a 1961 symposium discussed the question "Modern Architecture: Death or Metamorphosis?" In New York, the coup d'état appeared to materialize in controversy around the Pan Am Building that loomed over Grand Central Station, taking advantage of the modernist real estate concept of "air rights",[1] In criticism by Ada Louise Huxtable and Douglas Haskell it was seen to "sever" the Park Avenue streetscape and "tarnish" the reputations of its consortium of architects: Walter Gropius, Pietro Belluschi and the builders Emery Roth & Sons. The rise of postmodernism was attributed to disenchantment with Modern architecture. By the 1980s, postmodern architecture appeared triumphant over modernism, including the temple of the Light of the World, a futuristic design for its time Guadalajara Jalisco La Luz del Mundo Sede International; however, postmodern aesthetics lacked traction and by the mid-1990s, a neo-modern (or hypermodern) architecture had once again established international pre-eminence. As part of this revival, much of the criticism of the modernists has been revisited, refuted, and re-evaluated; and a modernistic idiom once again dominates in institutional and commercial contemporary practice, but must now compete with the revival of traditional architectural design in commercial and institutional architecture; residential design continues to be dominated by a traditional aesthetic.
The Sasakawa International Center for Space Architecture (SICSA) is a unique research, design and teaching entity that supports the world’s only MS-Space Architecture program. The organization was founded in 1987 with a permanent $3 million endowment gift provided by the Japan Shipbuilding Industry Foundation. This was the largest foreign gift ever received by the University of Houston.
SICSA’s central mission is to plan and implement programs that will advance peaceful and beneficial uses of space and space technology on Earth and beyond. Many of these activities address extreme terrestrial environments.
As with architecture on Earth, space architecture addresses the total built environment, not just its component elements and systems. This demands a broad understanding of issues and requirements that impact overall planning and design success. Important considerations include: influences of unique conditions of the space environment upon construction processes and material options; physiological, psychological, and sociological impacts of isolation and stress; and human factors design issues associated with human adaptation and performance in weightless and partial-gravity habitats.
SICSA is internationally recognized for its leadership in the field of space architecture. Many SICSA/Gerald D. Hines College of Architecture graduates have embarked upon productive and successful careers in government and corporate aerospace organizations throughout the world. NASA has awarded Certificates of Appreciation to SICSA for significant advanced design achievements and its activities and work products are routinely featured in US and foreign professional publications, popular magazines and radio and television features.
First established in 2003, the M.S. Space Architecture program responds to interests of aerospace engineers, social scientists and other specialists employed at NASA and associated organizations who wish to broaden their career development foundations and opportunities. Most attend the program on a part-time basis while retaining their jobs.
In support of the MS-Space Architecture curriculum and as an educational outreach service to other students and professionals, SICSA has provided a large downloadable “Space Architecture Seminar Lecture Series” that is available at no cost on this website:
SICSA Lecture Series Reports
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When our part of the earth turns to the sun, it is day. When our part of the earth turns away from the sun, it is night. The sun is bigger than the moon. But sometimes the moon looks bigger than the sun, because it is much nearer to the earth. The sun is very bright. It gives very strong light. The moon looks quite bright, too, but it doesn’t give any light at all. The light from the moon comes from the sun. The moon looks much bigger and brighter than the other stars. But in fact many stars are much bigger and brighter than the moon. They look smaller than the moon because they are farther away from the earth.
当我们的地球转向太阳，它是一天。当我们的地球远离太阳，是夜。太阳比月亮大。但有时月亮看起来比太阳大，因为它离地球近得多。太阳很明亮。它提供了很强的光。月亮看起来很明亮，太，但它不会给任何光。月光来自太阳。月亮看起来比其他的星星都要大得多，更明亮。但事实上，许多星星比月亮更大和更光明的。它们看起来比月亮小是因为它们离地球很远。
